You’ve worked hard to make sure your restaurant is up to food safety par-from creating and certifying a detailed HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) plan to making sure that employees have the cleanest hands in the business, you’ve made sure to take all the proper steps. What could be missing?

Quite a lot, actually, if you haven’t been paying attention to the way condiments are served. While ketchup and mustard may not be at the top of the list when planning food safety procedures, they need to be considered in a comprehensive food safety program.
 
For starters, consider the food safety angle for prepackaged condiments. Many restaurants and foodservice operators prefer the convenience of single service packets. Unopened packages do not need to be refrigerated and the packaging protects the food from contamination.
When offering condiments in packets, it is also important to match size to need. According to Debra Andrews, general manager of foodservice marketing at Heinz, condiments such as ketchup and mustard are available in a variety of bulk sizes. “Your product should turn in a couple days,” notes Andrews. “If it is taking a week or longer, you need a smaller pack size.”
While some operators rely on portion control packets for dispensing condiments, others prefer self-service pump dispensers. One kind features a pouch package with a snap-in-place pump creating a completely closed system.

In addition to condiment freshness checks, operators should ensure that self-serve condiment bars are wiped clean several times a day. Ketchup, mustard, and even relish can be kept out during the day, but operators should refrigerate them during non-business hours to retain quality.

If condiments are served to guests in open containers tableside, there is an important rule to follow: open portions of items such as salsa, salad dressings, mayonnaise, mustard and butter should be thrown away, according to LeAnn Chuboff, manager of food safety services at the National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation. The only foods that can be re-served are unopened, prepackaged foods like condiment packets, wrapped crackers or breadsticks.
Many restaurateurs prefer the look of condiment bottles on the table. According to Andrews, “The operator should not refill their bottles to avoid cross contamination between old and new product. When employees refill them, they can introduce bacteria into the bottle.” Andrews further recommends cleaning the outside and top of the bottles with a clean, dry cloth or paper towel. “A wet towel can allow mold to form,” she says.

Regardless of what items and which method is used to serve condiments, no food safety program is complete without a plan to address these finishing touches.

Cream-Keep It Cool
Handling coffee creamers safely is sometimes an overlooked detail. Packaged creamers require constant refrigeration. Simply placing the creamers on ice is not recommended because the melting ice can weaken the packaging. Also, if customers’ hands are in the water, bacteria may be introduced into the containers. The preferred option is to place the cream in a tray, which is then placed on ice. It is also important to make sure the stock is rotated and that fresh containers are not just added to the top of the pile. One alternative to creamers requiring constant refrigeration is to use shelf-stable creamers, such as those that have been pasteurized at ultra-high temperatures.
http://www.sysco.com/

Cooking outdoors was once only a summer activity shared with family and friends. Now more than half of Americans say they are cooking outdoors year round. So whether the snow is blowing or the sun is shining brightly, it’s important to follow food safety guidelines to prevent harmful bacteria from multiplying and causing forborne illness. Use these simple guidelines for grilling food safely.
From the Store: Home First
When shopping, buy cold food like meat and poultry last, right before checkout. Separate raw meat and poultry from other food in your shopping cart. To guard against cross-contamination — which can happen when raw meat or poultry juices drip on other food — put packages of raw meat and poultry into plastic bags.
Plan to drive directly home from the grocery store. You may want to take a cooler with ice for perishables. Always refrigerate perishable food within 2 hours. Refrigerate within 1 hour when the temperature is above 90 °F.
At home, place meat and poultry in the refrigerator immediately. Freeze poultry and ground meat that won’t be used in 1 or 2 days; freeze other meat within 4 to 5 days.
Thaw Safely
Completely thaw meat and poultry before grilling so it cooks more evenly. Use the refrigerator for slow, safe thawing or thaw sealed packages in cold water. You can microwave defrost if the food will be placed immediately on the grill.
Marinating
A marinade is a savory, acidic sauce in which a food is soaked to enrich its flavor or to tenderize it. Marinate food in the refrigerator, not on the counter. Poultry and cubed meat or stew meat can be marinated up to 2 days. Beef, veal, pork, and lamb roasts, chops, and steaks may be marinated up to 5 days. If some of the marinade is to be used as a sauce on the cooked food, reserve a portion of the marinade before putting raw meat and poultry in it. However, if the marinade used on raw meat or poultry is to be reused, make sure to let it come to a boil first to destroy any harmful bacteria.
Transporting
When carrying food to another location, keep it cold to minimize bacterial growth. Use an insulated cooler with sufficient ice or ice packs to keep the food at 40 °F or below. Pack food right from the refrigerator into the cooler immediately before leaving home.
Keep Cold Food Cold
Keep meat and poultry refrigerated until ready to use. Only take out the meat and poultry that will immediately be placed on the grill.
When using a cooler, keep it out of the direct sun by placing it in the shade or shelter. Avoid opening the lid too often, which lets cold air out and warm air in. Pack beverages in one cooler and perishables in a separate cooler.
Keep Everything Clean
Be sure there are plenty of clean utensils and platters. To prevent forborne illness, don’t use the same platter and utensils for raw and cooked meat and poultry. Harmful bacteria present in raw meat and poultry and their juices can contaminate safely cooked food.
If you’re eating away from home, find out if there’s a source of clean water. If not, bring water for preparation and cleaning. Or pack clean cloths, and wet towelettes for cleaning surfaces and hands.
Precooking
Precooking food partially in the microwave, oven, or stove is a good way of reducing grilling time. Just make sure that the food goes immediately on the preheated grill to complete cooking.
 
Cook Thoroughly
Cook food to a safe minimum internal temperature to destroy harmful bacteria. Meat and poultry cooked on a grill often browns very fast on the outside. Use a food thermometer to be sure the food has reached a safe minimum internal temperature. Beef, veal, and lamb steaks, roasts and chops can be cooked to 145 °F. Hamburgers made of ground beef should reach 160 °F. All cuts of pork should reach 160 °F. All poultry should reach a minimum of 165 °F.
NEVER partially grill meat or poultry and finish cooking later.
Reheating
When reheating fully cooked meats like hot dogs, grill to 165 °F or until steaming hot.
Keep Hot Food Hot
After cooking meat and poultry on the grill, keep it hot until served — at 140 °F or warmer.
Keep cooked meats hot by setting them to the side of the grill rack, not directly over the coals where they could overcook. At home, the cooked meat can be kept hot in an oven set at approximately 200 °F, in a chafing dish or slow cooker, or on a warming tray.
Serving the Food
When taking food off the grill, use a clean platter. Don’t put cooked food on the same platter that held raw meat or poultry. Any harmful bacteria present in the raw meat juices could contaminate safely cooked food.
In hot weather (above 90 °F), food should never sit out for more than 1 hour.
Leftovers
Refrigerate any leftovers promptly in shallow containers. Discard any food left out more than 2 hours (1 hour if temperatures are above 90 °F).
Safe Smoking
Smoking is cooking food indirectly in the presence of a fire. It can be done in a covered grill if a pan of water is placed beneath the meat on the grill; and meats can be smoked in a “smoker,” which is an outdoor cooker especially designed for smoking foods. Smoking is done much more slowly than grilling, so less tender meats benefit from this method, and a natural smoke flavoring permeates the meat. The temperature in the smoker should be maintained at 250 to 300 °F for safety.
Use a food thermometer to be sure the food has reached a safe internal temperature.
Pit Roasting
Pit roasting is cooking meat in a large, level hole dug in the earth. A hardwood fire is built in the pit, requiring wood equal to about 2½ times the volume of the pit. The hardwood is allowed to burn until the wood reduces and the pit is half filled with burning coals. This can require 4 to 6 hours burning time.
Cooking may require 10 to 12 hours or more and is difficult to estimate. A food thermometer must be used to determine the meat’s safety and doneness. There are many variables such as outdoor temperature, the size and thickness of the meat, and how fast the coals are cooking.
Does Grilling Pose a Cancer Risk?
Some studies suggest there may be a cancer risk related to eating food cooked by high-heat cooking techniques as grilling, frying, and broiling. Based on present research findings, eating moderate amounts of grilled meats like fish, meat, and poultry cooked — without charring — to a safe temperature does not pose a problem.
To prevent charring, remove visible fat that can cause a flare-up. Precook meat in the microwave immediately before placing it on the grill to release some of the juices that can drop on coals. Cook food in the center of the grill and move coals to the side to prevent fat and juices from dripping on them. Cut charred portions off the meat.
http://www.fsis.usda.gov/

Easy tips to avoid being infected 

Nov. 20, 2006)–The recent outbreak of salmonella contamination that sickened 171 people in 19 states has prompted the Food and Drug Administration to issue tips on how to avoid becoming infected with the bacteria.

“Salmonella is a fairly ubiquitous organism,” says Dr. Pascal James Imperato, chairman of the department of preventive medicine and community health at the State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, and a former New York City health commissioner.

While salmonella bacteria often contaminate meat, it’s not a problem if the meat is properly handled and cooked. “The difficulty comes in when there is cross-contamination of the meat on surfaces which then come into contact with other foods, or if you drink raw milk or eat fresh fruits and vegetables which have become contaminated,” he says.

Salmonella can cause fever, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. In rare cases, it can get into the bloodstream and cause more severe illnesses, according to the FDA.

“Meat should be thoroughly cooked, particularly hamburger. If it’s eaten rare or medium rare, the organism is still alive because the heat is not sufficient to kill it,” he says.

Vegetables and fruit should routinely be washed and people should also be careful not to contaminate counter surfaces in their kitchen with fresh meat.

Other tips to keep food safe include:

* Don’t buy produce that’s bruised or damaged.

* Keep fruits and vegetables separate from meats and fish.

* Refrigerate fruits and vegetables at 40 degrees F or below.

* Wash fruits and vegetables under running water before eating them — even if you peel them.

* Dry fruits and vegetables with a clean cloth or paper towel.

* Wash your hands after preparing fresh produce.

* Cut away any bruised or damaged parts of fruits or vegetables.

* Throw out any rotten produce.

* Wash cutting boards, dishes, utensils and counter tops with soap and hot water after preparing raw meat, poultry and seafood, and before preparing produce that’ll be eaten raw. 

http://www.prevention.com/article/ 

The idea of an “antifreeze” system was first described in marine fish inhabiting the coast of Northern Labrador whose body fluids had the same freezing point of seawater (−1.7 °C to −2 °C) rather than freshwater (0 °C) (Scholander and others 1957; Gordon and others 1962). This phenomenon was eventually attributed to a set of peptides and glycopeptides termed AFPs and antifreeze glycoproteins (AFGPs), respectively. These proteins are synthesized primarily in the liver and secreted into the blood and extracellular space, where they bind and modify the structure of microice crystals, thereby inhibiting ice crystal growth and lowering the freezing point of body fluids (Davies and Hew 1990; Raymond 1991). AFPs have diverse structures and are divided into 3 categories (types I, II, and III) depending on their protein sequences. Also, the number of copies and type of AFP genes varies with the fish species: for example, winter flounder (Pleuronectes americanus) have 30 to 40 copies of type I; sea raven (Hemitripterus americanus) have 12 to 15 copies of type II; and Newfoundland ocean pout have 150 copies of type III (Hew and others 1995). 

The ocean pout type III AFP transgene has been successfully transferred and expressed in goldfish (Wang and others 1995). The gene was microinjected into the goldfish oocytes and was inherited through 2 generations. The transgenic goldfish showed significantly higher cold tolerance as compared to controls, suggesting possible use of the transgene for promoting cold resistance in fish. 

AFP transgenic technology could be highly beneficial to the aquaculture industry in countries with freezing and subzero coastline conditions. For example, winter water temperatures along the Atlantic coast of Canada can range from 0 °C to −1.8 °C; these conditions restrict the cultivation of salmonids and other commercially important fish to a few select areas at the southern edge of eastern Canada (Hew and others 1995; Fletcher and others 2004). Therefore, research is currently under way to develop strains of Atlantic salmon that could be cultivated over a wider geographic range. This could be accomplished by (1) introduction of a set of AFP transgenes that allow the fish to survive lower water temperatures, or (2) introduction of GH transgenes to produce a rapidly growing strain that does not require overwintering (Hew and others 1995). Although AFP transgenes have been successfully introduced into, expressed in, and inherited through germlines of Atlantic salmon, the cold-tolerant transgenic salmon do not produce AFP in sufficient quantities to achieve freeze resistance (Hew and Fletcher 1992; Hew and others 1995; Fletcher and others 2004). This may be due to the need for higher expression levels and/or the fact that the gene actually codes for an AFP precursor that must first be changed into its fully functional form (Maclean and Laight 2000). The current challenge, according to Fletcher and others (2004), is to create an AFP transgene construct that will be expressed at heightened levels in the epithelial tissues and the liver. 

Disease resistance. A major limitation facing the aquaculture industry is outbreak of disease, as farmed fish are generally cultured at high densities and under stress, putting them at elevated risk for bacterial infection (Hew and others 1995). One example can be found in the catfish industry, which suffers an average annual loss of over US$100 million because of disease (Dunham and others 2002b). Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) are an economically important species in the United States, accounting for more than 60% of U.S. aquaculture production (269000 metric tons per year) (USDA 2001). However, these fish are susceptible to numerous harmful bacterial infections, the most detrimental being enteric septicemia, caused by Edwardsiella ictalurii (Dunham and others 2002b). Antibiotics can help provide disease resistance, but only a limited number have been approved for use in aquaculture (Sarmasik and others 2002). Although there are effective vaccines available for some diseases, many common catfish diseases, including enteric septicemia, do not have truly effective treatment methods (Dunham and others 2002b). Also, use of DNA vaccines is often labor-intensive and can cause high stress to the fish owing to excessive handling (Sarmasik and others 2002). A promising alternative involves use of transgenic technology to produce strains of fish with increased disease resistance. A number of antimicrobial peptides with the potential to improve disease resistance in aquaculture have been isolated from fish. The gene coding for these peptides has not been well characterized; however, a few possibilities are discussed below. 

Cecropins are a group of small, antibacterial peptides first identified in the silk moth Hyalophora cecropia (Dunham and others 2002b). Cecropins have antimicrobial activity against a wide spectrum of bacteria and have already been incorporated into transgenic plants such as potato and tobacco to provide increased disease resistance (Sarmasik and others 2002). Channel catfish with transgenically introduced cecropin genes demonstrated increased disease resistance and survival when exposed to E. ictalurii and Flavobacterium columnare, as compared to nontransgenic controls (Dunham and others 2002b). Transgenic individuals exposed to F. columnare in an earthen pond showed 100% survival, which was significantly greater than the nontransgenic controls (27.3% survival). When challenged with E. ictalurii in tanks, transgenic individuals also showed significantly greater survival (40.7%) as compared to nontransgenic controls (14.8%) (Dunham 2005). Transgenic Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) containing insect cecropin or pig cecropin-like peptide transgenes driven by a CMV promoter have also shown enhanced bactericidal activity against 2 known fish pathogens, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Vibrio anguillarum (Sarmasik and others 2002). Cecropin transgene constructs were electroporated into medaka eggs, and survivors containing the transgene were used as founder stocks to establish successive generations of transgenic medaka. When the F2 transgenics were exposed to P. fluorescens and V. anguillarum at 60% lethal dose, only 10% and 10% to 30% were killed, respectively, while 40% of the controls were killed by both pathogens (Sarmasik and others 2002). 

Lysozyme is a nonspecific antibacterial enzyme present in the blood, mucus, kidney, and lymphomyeloid tissues in fish (Hew and others 1995). Rainbow trout contain elevated levels of lysozyme (10- to 20-fold higher than in Atlantic salmon) and a rainbow trout lysozyme cDNA construct with an ocean pout AFP promoter has been created (Hew and others 1995). Interestingly, rainbow trout were recently reported to have 2 distinct types of lysozymes, with only type II having significant bactericidal activity (Mitra and others 2003). The gene for type II lysozyme was amplified and sequenced for future use in transgenic immune system enhancement of farmed fish. Lysozyme transgenes are also being tested in agricultural products such as rice and have been found to increase disease resistance (Huang and others 2002). Although the lysozyme gene may prove to heighten disease resistance in transgenic fish, research is still in the initial phases with no published results to date (Fletcher and others 2004). 

Human lactoferrin (hLF) is a nonspecific antimicrobial and immunomodulatory iron-binding protein that has been used widely in agriculture for production of disease-resistant transgenic crops, including potatoes and tobacco (Mao and others 2004). One use of hLF in fish is to increase resistance against the grass carp hemorrhage virus (Zhong and others 2002). This virus induces deadly hemorrhaging in grass carp and is a major setback to the successful farming of these fish in China. To induce resistance against the virus, a DNA construct containing the hLF gene linked to a common carp β-actin promoter was electroporated into the sperm of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) (Zhong and others 2002). Gene transfer efficiency was reported to be near 50%, and after 5 mo about 36% of the surviving grass carp contained the transgene. After being challenged with the virus, transgenic fry showed a significant delay in the onset of symptoms of hemorrhage, indicating a possible use for hLF gene expression in grass carp. In a more recent study, electroporation of hLF cDNA into grass carp sperm resulted in as high as 55% production of transgenic fish (Mao and others 2004). These fish had increased immunity against infection with the bacterial pathogen Aeromonas hydrophila as compared to nontransgenic controls; transgenic grass carp had enhanced phagocytic activities and were able to clear A. hydrophila from their systems more quickly (Mao and others 2004). The authors hypothesized that hLF increases disease resistance by stimulating phagocytic activity in transgenic fish. 

A series of recent studies have focused on the use of shark DNA to boost immune responses in fish (El-Zaeem and Assem 2004; Assem and El-Zaeem 2005). Sharks contain high levels of immunoglobulin (IgM) proteins, which act as antibodies and help initiate immune responses to bacterial invasions. Although IgM can be found at high levels in shark (up to 50% of the serum proteins), it has been reported to be present at much lower levels in fish such as Atlantic salmon, halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus L.), haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus L.), and cod (Gadus morhua L.) (2%, 8%, 13%, and 20% of the serum proteins, respectively) (Marchalonis and others 1993; Magnadottir 1998). When shark (Squalus acanthias L.) DNA was injected into the skeletal muscles of Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) and redbelly tilapia (Tilapia zillii) fingerlings, fish showed significantly higher levels of total antibody activity, serum total protein, and globulin (El-Zaeem and Assem 2004; Assem and El-Zaeem 2005). In addition, injected tilapia had significant growth enhancement and changes in proximate composition, with decreases in moisture and increases in both protein and lipid content. Injected fish showed high genetic polymorphism, indicating random integration of the shark genes into tilapia muscle DNA. The highest injection dose resulted in deformities in the ovaries and testes of tilapia, suggesting a negative effect on spawning and reproductive abilities. Consequently, the authors pointed to a need for further studies into the effects of injected DNA on following generations. 

An additional biotechnological application in the aquaculture industry is the treatment of fish with poly I:C, a potent inducer of type I interferons (IFNs) (Jensen and others 2002). Type I IFNs are known to stimulate expression of myxovirus resistance (Mx) proteins, which are GTPases that inhibit the replication of single-stranded RNA viruses such as infectious salmon anemia virus (ISAV), one of the most economically harmful pathogens in the Atlantic salmon industry. When challenged with ISAV, Atlantic salmon treated with poly I:C experienced increased levels of Mx proteins and reduced mortality as compared to untreated controls (Jensen and others 2002). Since Mx proteins have been successfully cloned from Atlantic salmon, Japanese flounder, rainbow trout, and Atlantic halibut, they could potentially be introduced into transgenic fish. These fish could then be treated with poly I:C in order to induce type I IFNs and Mx protein expression, thereby promoting resistance against pathogens such as ISAV. 

http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/

By definition, transgenic or genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are those that have had foreign DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) artificially inserted into their own genomes (Chen and others 1996; FAO 2000). The first successful case of transgenic fish was reported in 1985, when Zhu and colleagues microinjected the human GH gene into the fertilized eggs of goldfish (Carassius auratus L. 1758) (Zhu and others 1985). This was followed by successful introduction of human GH gene into the genome of the loach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus) with resulting transgenic fish that grew 3 to 4.6 times faster than the control within the first 135 d (Zhu and others 1986). Since 1985, the field of transgenics has experienced a number of technological advances. Many genetically modified fish species have been established along with various methods for foreign gene insertion (such as microinjection, electroporation, infection with pantropic defective retroviral vectors, particle gun bombardment, and sperm- and testis-mediated gene transfer methods) and detection (such as polymerase chain reaction [PCR]-based assay and Southern blot analysis) (Chen and others 1996; Lu and others 2002; Sarmasik 2003; Collares and others 2005; Pandian and Venugopal 2005; Smith and Spadafora 2005). Transgenic fish are appealing to some because attainment of desired traits is generally more effective, direct, and selective than traditional breeding, and could prove to be an economic benefit for improvement of production efficiency in aquaculture worldwide (Nam and others 2002; Ramirez and Morrissey 2003). In addition, fish species tend to be relatively tolerant to artificial manipulation of their genes during early development, making them ideal subjects for genetic modification (Foresti 2000). However, there are numerous environmental and human health concerns, which will be addressed later in this section, that are associated with the use of transgenic technology in aquaculture (FAO 2000; Fleming and others 2000; Aerni 2004; Naylor and others 2005).

To create a transgenic fish, a DNA construct containing genes for the desired trait(s) along with a promoter sequence is generally introduced into the pronuclear of fertilized eggs. This is followed by in vitro or in vivo (implanted into the uterus of a pseudopregnant female) incubation of the injected embryos and subsequent maturation into a fully developed transgenic organism (Chen and others 1996). Once transgenes have become integrated into a host organism’s DNA, they can be passed on to future generations (Chen and others 1996), with the possibility of 100% transmission using stable isogonics transgenic lines (Nam and others 2002). Zebrafish are often used as a model species in transgenic studies owing to a number of biological and experimental advantages: they are easy to maintain and breed, their embryos are sturdy against experimental manipulations, they develop rapidly, they have a large number of offspring, and they are transparent at some stages of development, facilitating the use of fluorescent transgenes (Dahm and Geisler 2006). Thus far, fish including Atlantic, Coho, and Chinook salmon, rainbow and cutthroat trout, tilapia, striped bass, mud loach, channel catfish, common carp, Indian major carp, goldfish, Japanese medaka, northern pike, red and silver sea bream, walleye, and zebrafish have been genetically modified to produce select traits (see Table 1) such as increased growth, increased feed conversion efficiency, cold tolerance, and disease resistance, all of which will be thoroughly discussed in the following subsections.

Growth hormone.
GH is a polypeptide that is excreted from the pituitary gland, binds specific cell receptors, and induces synthesis and secretion of insulin-like growth factors (IGF-1 and IGF-II), resulting in promotion of somatic growth through improved appetite, feeding efficiency, and growth rate (Hsih and others 1997; de la Fuente and others 1998). In fish, the central nervous system (CNS) normally controls GH excretion levels, which are highly variable, occurring seasonally and in bursts. However, the AFP gene of ocean pout (Macrozoarces americanus) is expressed year-round in the liver. As a way of bypassing CNS control on GH expression, transgenic research typically involves linking the GH gene to the AFP gene promoter (Fletcher and others 2004). Enhanced secretion of GH and subsequent fish size augmentation could greatly reduce production costs associated with aquaculture by reducing the time to market size and lowering exposure to risks such as disease and predators (Cook and others 2000). Although attempts to introduce GH exogenously have also been met with some success, commercial application of strains of fish containing transgenically introduced GH, once developed, could prove to be more cost-effective (Chen and others 1996). Increased growth has been the most thoroughly researched of the possible transgenically induced fish traits, and it is predicted that this technology will soon be applied to commercial aquaculture production (Wu and others 2003). However, a major remaining challenge is to determine the optimum balance of GH required for obtaining maximum growth without causing harmful effects to the organism (de la Fuente and others 1998), as excess GH can cause problems such as acromegaly (associated in humans with excess bony growth in the jaw) and head enlargement (Rahman and others 2001).

Since the initial transgenic introduction of human GH gene into goldfish and mud loach (Zhu and others 1985, 1986), extensive research has been performed on the use of GH in a wide variety of aquatic species. New, improved techniques have been developed for introduction of transgenes into host genomes, and there has been a focus on the use of GH genes originating from fish rather than humans, with the hope of increasing consumer acceptability (Levy and others 2000). Negative perceptions associated with the use of viral promoters to express transgenes have also driven many researchers to replace them with fish-based promoters for the creation of “all-fish” transgene constructs (Galli 2002). These all-fish GH-transgenic strains have been developed in a number of species, including common carp (Cyprinus carpio), silver sea bream (Sparus sarba), red sea bream (Pagrosomus major), tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) (Table 1).

As discussed by Wu and others (2003), an all-fish GH construct has been successfully introduced into the common carp, resulting in increased growth rate and more efficient feed conversion as compared to farmed fish controls. Middle-scale trials of these all-fish GH-transgenic common carp have shown high potential for successful commercial application in aquaculture. In 2003, carps and other cyprinids were the top species group produced worldwide in aquaculture, contributing 17.2 million tons (live weight) to the global food supply (Johnson 2005). Use of transgenic technology in carp aquaculture could prove to be highly beneficial to the industry and further increase the availability of these fish.

Transgenic lines of silver sea bream, an economically important cultivated species in Asia, were developed using a construct containing rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) GH complementary DNA (cDNA) with a common carp promoter (Lu and others 2002). Using 2 novel methods of introduction, sperm- and testis-mediated gene transfer, between 56% and 76% of the animals carried the transgene, and several showed faster growth than controls (Lu and others 2002).
Red sea bream has high economic value in China, but production is limited by a relatively slow growth rate (Zhang and others 1998). With hopes of developing this industry, Zhang and others (1998) introduced an all-fish gene construct containing Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) GH with an ocean pout AFP gene promoter into fertilized eggs using electroporation, a technique that allows for treatment of over 10000 eggs in 10 min. After 30 d, 29% of the fish carried the foreign DNA sequence and after 2 mo, 38% were found to carry the sequence. Compared to controls at 7 mo, the average body weight and length of the transgenic individuals increased by 21% and 9.3%, respectively.

Tilapia is an economically important aquaculture species that is farmed in over 60 countries worldwide (Rahman and Maclean 1998). All-fish transgenic tilapia were successfully created by microinjection of Chinook salmon GH linked to an ocean pout AFP promoter. The transgenic tilapias were found to grow almost 4 times faster than nontransgenic siblings, and the transgenic sequence was successfully transmitted through the germline (Rahman and Maclean 1998). A more recent, long-term trial found a 2.5-fold increase in growth and 20% greater food conversion efficiency, with more efficient utilization of protein, dry matter, and energy, as compared to nontransgenic siblings (Rahman and others 2001). In an investigation into the expression sites of the AFP type III promoter/Chinook salmon GH construct in tilapia, messenger ribonucleic acid (RNA) containing the transgenic GH was expected to be mainly found in the liver (Caelers and others 2005). However, the resulting expression pattern was more reflective of natural rather than transgenic GH, with transgenic messenger RNA being detected in a number of other organs, including the gills, heart, brain, kidney, spleen, intestine, skeletal muscles, and testes. Since no growth abnormalities were observed, the authors suggested that this gene transfer method mimics the natural expression of GH in organs during development, resulting in growth-enhanced fish with normal proportions.

Transgenic tilapia containing the GH gene driven by the human cytomegalovirus (CMV) were compared to nontransgenic siblings on a number of metabolic and physiological parameters (Martinez and others 2000). The results showed several significant differences, with transgenic tilapia consuming 3.6-fold less food and having 290% greater feed conversion efficiency. In addition, growth efficiency, average protein synthesis, anabolic stimulation, and synthesis retention were higher for the transgenic tilapia. The authors also reported distinct metabolic differences for transgenic juveniles, concluding that GH-enhanced transgenic juvenile tilapia are biologically more efficient than nontransgenic juveniles.

Studies into the use of CMV as a promoter of the GH gene have also taken place with fish such as Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus L.) and the Indian major carp Labeo rohita (Pitkanen and others 1999b; Pandian and Venugopal 2005). Pitkanen and others (1999b) reported that CMV showed a greater ability to promote transgenic growth as compared with 2 piscine promoters, metallothionein B and histone 3. A further investigation into the use of CMV as a GH gene promoter showed no difference in the muscle composition of transgenic fish as compared to nontransgenic siblings (Krasnov and others 1999). However, the transgenic fish did show some metabolic features that are often observed in farmed salmonids, such as an increased metabolic rate and faster utilization of dietary lipids, particularly in the case of triglycerides. In transgenic studies involving the Indian major carp L. rohita, an element known as internal ribosomal entry sites (IRES) was included in an expression vector containing the CMV promoter and Indian major carp GH (Pandian and Venugopal 2005). This IRES element enables expression of 2 genes—the gene coding for the protein of interest (GH) along with a reporter gene (enhanced green fluorescent protein [EGFP]). Although the resulting transgenic carp exhibited 4- to 5-fold increases in growth compared to nontransgenic controls, 99% mortality was observed within 10 wk of hatching.

Transgenic Atlantic salmon containing Chinook salmon GH have also been developed (Du and others 1992; Fletcher and others 1992; Cook and others 2000). In 1 study, all-fish growth-enhanced transgenic Atlantic salmon produced by microinjection were found to have a 13-fold increase in body weight compared to nontransgenic controls (Du and others 1992). In a later study, all-fish growth-enhanced transgenic Atlantic salmon were found to grow at rates 2.62 to 2.85 times greater than nontransgenic controls, with a 10% greater feed conversion efficiency (Cook and others 2000). Transgenic salmon also ingested more, exhibiting 2.14- to 2.62-fold greater daily feed consumption, with lower body protein, dry matter, ash, lipid, and energy and higher moisture than nontransgenic controls (Cook and others 2000). The results of a recent study into the genetic expression and interactions of GH, IGF-I, and their receptors indicate involvement of the hormones in the areas of vertebral growth and bone density (Wargelius and others 2005). It was reported that plasma GH most likely activates growth in bony tissues, while IGF-I appears to be important in bone matrix production.

Fletcher and others (2004), whose laboratory began, studying GH gene transfer in 1989, reported successful expression and inheritance of the GH gene through 6 generations of Atlantic salmon. The transgenic salmon reach market size approximately 1 y earlier than nontransgenic farmed salmon. This technology was patented and licensed to Aqua Bounty Technologies™ of Waltham, Mass., U.S.A., which has recently announced the development of transgenic broodstocks of salmon, trout, and tilapia under the trade name of AquAdvantage™ (http://www.aquabounty.com/products.html). These fish, which contain the GH gene from Chinook salmon, express GH protein year-round instead of seasonally and are reported by the company to reach market size at least twice as fast as their nontransgenic counterparts (Dove 2005). The transgenic fish are also neutered to prevent interbreeding with wild stocks. AquAdvantage salmon, which grow at a rate 4 to 6 times greater than nontransgenic Atlantic salmon, are currently under regulatory review in both the United States and Canada (Castle and others 2005).
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Advances in biotechnology over the past several decades have provided the tools necessary for artificial manipulation of genes and chromosomes in living organisms. The creation of transgenic fish and shellfish is a topic of great interest in aquaculture research due to the potential improvements in production that this technology can offer (Zbikowska 2003; Dunham 2004). Major areas of transgenic research in fish include use of growth hormones (GHs) to increase growth and feed conversion efficiency; use of antifreeze proteins (AFPs) for enhanced cold tolerance and freeze resistance; use of antimicrobial peptides for increased disease resistance; use of metabolic genes to promote low-cost, land-based diets; and genetic methods for inducing sterility. Although transgenic work in fish is well established, research with marine invertebrates is only in the initial stages due to complications with introduction and expression of foreign genes. Early research with marine invertebrates has led to the development of successful gene transfer methods, with studies focused on improving disease resistance. In addition to transgenic research, advances in chromosome manipulation (polyploidy) also show potential for improving production in the aquaculture industry, particularly in the case of shellfish. Use of polyploidy in aquaculture can result in sterility, along with enhanced growth and survival rates and increased quality of final products. 

The aquaculture industry is the fastest growing of the animal food-producing sectors, increasing at an average rate of 8.9% per year since 1970 (FAO 2004). Although landings from capture marine fisheries increased about 5-fold in the period from 1950 to 1990, annual growth has become slow to stagnant over the past 15 years (FAO 2000, 2006). As a result of factors such as population growth, urbanization, and rising per capita incomes, world fish consumption more than tripled over the period of 1961 to 2001, increasing from 28 to 96.3 million metric tons (FAO 2004). The global demand for fish and fishery products is predicted to continue to increase in the years to come—from 133 million tons in 1999 to 2001 to 183 million metric tons by the year 2015. Taking into account indications that capture fisheries are close to or have already reached their potential, the world is looking toward aquaculture and its technologies to fulfill the expanding food demands: by 2020, aquaculture is expected to supply 41% of the global food fish production (compared to 3.9% in 1970 and 29.9% in 2002) (Delgado and others 2002; FAO 2004). 

Despite predictions of a growing aquaculture industry, stagnant world capture fisheries and increased populations are projected to lead to a global shortage of fish and fish products in the years to come (Delgado and others 2002). As a result, prices are expected to rise: it has been predicted that by 2015, fish prices will increase by about 3.2%1 (FAO 2004), and by 2020, prices for mollusks, finfish, and crustaceans are expected to increase by 4% to 16%2 (Delgado and others 2002). Use of biotechnology in aquaculture has the potential to alleviate these predicted fish shortages and price increases by enhancing production efficiency, minimizing costs, and reducing disease. However, the incorporation of transgenic organisms into the food chain has been met with massive criticism from both the environmental and human health sectors. This review paper will cover current advances in the manipulation of genes and chromosomes for use in aquaculture along with a discussion of the controversy surrounding transgenic technology in aquaculture. 

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China vowed Wednesday to crack down on contaminated and sometimes deadly food and drugs after a string of sensational revelations about the safety of Chinese products.

China announced that authorities have detained managers from two companies linked to contaminated pet food that killed pets in the U.S. A top government drug regulator is also about to go on trial, as China promises to boost food and drug safety.

China launched a food and drug safety crackdown Wednesday, following an announcement that authorities had detained managers from two companies linked to contaminated pet food that killed dogs and cats in North America.